***UNDER CONSTRUCTION***
Adaptive — adaptive behaviors or ways of thinking are conducive to psychological wellbeing, and the overall functioning of an individual, in a given environment.
Ad hoc — means “for this” in Latin; in popular usage, something is referred to as being ad hoc if it is being utilized for a specific purpose, as needed, with the implication that this utilization is not permanent or generalizable to other purposes. This term is often used in reference to committees that are created for a specific purpose, but which will be dissolved when they are no longer needed and which do not have powers or a purpose outside of the specific niche or purpose they were created for. “Provisional” is another term for something that is temporary or likely to be changed in the future, but provisional does not imply that something is for a specific purpose, as ad hoc does—this is why many transition governments are called provisional. In philosophy the term ad hoc (or epicycle, in reference to an ad hoc element of the Ptolemaic model in early astronomy) is usually used as a criticism for an aspect of a theory that is added to correct a specific problem or gap in the theory, but which does not fit coherently into the theory as a whole.
Affect — the nature of expressions (e.g., facial expression, body language) that generally correlate with certain emotions or moods (see emotion and mood). During psychological evaluation we might describe a person’s affect in various ways, such as blunt or flat (very little expressiveness), labile (highly variable), inappropriate or incongruent (not matching the situation or what the person is describing), or typical.
A posteriori (ah pahst-ear-ee-or-ee) – a Latin term used to describe knowledge that is dependent upon experience, such as simple observation or an empirical observation, like a scientific study. The statement “cats are vertebrates” is an example of a posteriori knowledge because it is dependent upon observing what a cat is like. The philosophers who hold that we can only gain non-trivial knowledge through experience are known as empiricists. Also see entry on forms of knowledge here in section 2.5.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.
A priori (ah pre-or-ee) – a Latin term used to describe knowledge which can be deduced from logic alone, independent of experience. The statement “all fathers have had children” is an example of a priori knowledge, since it can be determined through logical reasoning – you need not observe many fathers to know that they all have children since the predicate concept of “having children” is contained in the subject concept, i.e., it is definitionally true. The philosophers who hold that we can only trust a priori knowledge, i.e., knowledge gleaned through reason, independent of experience, are known as rationalists. Radical empiricists deny that a priori knowledge is a form of knowledge. Also see entry on forms of knowledge here in section 2.5.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.
Alternative hypothesis — often abbreviated as Ha or H1 — the hypothesis that there is statistical significance when looking for a type of effect or change in the status quo (see and compare with null hypothesis).
Amnesia — the loss of memory or inability to form memories. In retrograde amnesia memories stored before the amnesia event are lost; in anterograde amnesia there is a problem with encoding new memories after the amnesia event, however, long-term memories are preserved.
Ataraxia – also known as equanimity — is the Epicurean term for a state of mental or emotional calm even in the face of distressful situations; the absence of mental suffering: anxiety, depression, jealousy, ennui, terror, etc.
Autonoetic consciousness (auto = self; noetic = relating to the intellect or mental activity) — the ability to remember or imagine the self in the past, the future, and in counter-factual situations. Autonoetic consciousness requires episodic memory, or the remembering of past autobiographical events. Both concepts are closely tied to our concept of self.
Bell curve — *** coming soon.
Catecholamines — see neurotransmitters.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) — a form of psychotherapy (or psycho-social therapy) that focuses on correcting cognitive distortions—chiefly, illogical or erroneous beliefs, but also attitudinal patterns that stem from these beliefs. The philosophical foundations of CBT go back to Stoic philosopy founded in ancient Greece, and are captured well by the Stoic Epictetus’ statement that “We are not disturbed by what happens to us, but by our thoughts about what happens to us.” Essentially, CBT (and Stoicism) holds that our beliefs are the primary influence over our behavior and our emotions; if we can correct our erroneous, illogical, maladaptive or self-defeating beliefs we can make our behaviors and our emotional states more adaptive—that is, more conducive to good psycho-social health. The first form of CBT was Albert Ellis’ rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT), followed by Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT)—both of these psychologists were influenced by stoic philosophy. Other forms of CBT: dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), cognitive processing therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, etc.
Co-occur—in the context of mental health or medicine, co-occur means that two or more conditions are affecting the individual at the same time. Compare with comorbid.
Comorbid—comorbidity, in the context of mental health or medicine, is essentially synonymous with “co-occur”, meaning two or more conditions affecting the individual at the same time, however, comorbid usually implies a causal link between one condition and the others. For example, persons with obesity often have metabolic syndrome or diabetes comorbidity.
Cryptomnesia — when one believes they have generated a novel thought or idea, but it is actually a memory that was unconsciously stored. The person experiencing cryptomnesia does not realize that their thought / idea is actually a memory.
De facto — Latin term meaning “in fact”.
Déjà vu — the feeling that one has experienced the situation one is in at an earlier point in time. Possible causes: cryptomnesia; “glitches” in memory formation; dream experiences.
De jure — Latin term meaning “by law” or “by right”. Not to be confused with du jour, meaning served on this day, or “of the day.”
De novo — Latin term meaning “starting from the beginning, or from the same starting point/level.” In law it generally means “starting with a new trial,” or starting afresh or anew.
Dopamine — a catecholamine neurotransmitter that is linked to reward-motivated behavior in the brain. Outside of the brain, dopamine has numerous and diverse functions. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine / tyrosine.
Dependent variable (DV) (psychology) – The thing you are measuring in the experiment (measuring its response to the independent variable [IV]). Sometimes called the “responding variable”. The DV corresponds to the predicted effect, or the “then” part of the hypothesis. Example: Study hypothesis: If students study at least 1 hour a night (IV = study time), then they will receive higher test grades (DV = test) than those who did not study at night.
Dichotomy of control — the distinction between what we have control over (or some significant degree of control over), and that which we have no control over (or very little control over). You can think of this as more of a spectrum than a dichotomy, if you prefer.
Dual diagnosis—refers to the co-occurence or comorbidity of a mental health disorder and a substance use disorder. See co-occur and comorbid.
Ecological validity (psychology) — a study is said to be ecologically valid if the conditions of the study match those of the real world as closely as possible. Ecological validity is one type of external validity, that is, how a measure of how accurately the results of a study can be extrapolated to the actual world.
Efficacy vs. effectiveness — efficacy refers to how well the independent variable was shown to work in a study; effectiveness refers to how effective the independent variable (treatment) works in the clinical (real world) setting.
Emotion — automatic feelings that cause changes in one’s consciousness; emotions often correspond with some kind of stimuli (e.g., an event in the world, a thought, etc.). Compare with mood and affect.
Emotional lability — rapid, intense, and unpredictable changes in emotional state. Emotional lability is commonly seen in borderline personality disorder (BPD—see personality disorders section here), with substance use—or as a consequence of a substance use disorder, and in some mood disorders. Emotional lability may also be seen in some neurological disorders and as a side effect of medications.
Epicureanism — a philosophical system developed by the philosopher Epicurus, that emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure as the highest good and the avoidance of pain as the primary goal of human life. This pleasure is not seen as purely physical, but rather includes intellectual and emotional satisfaction, such as the pursuit of knowledge and friendship. The Epicureans believed that happiness could be attained through the absence of fear and anxiety, which could be achieved through the cultivation of a simple and self-sufficient life (see: tetrapharmakos). They also emphasized the importance of moderation and the avoidance of excess in all things.
Episodic memory — one of two types of explicit memory, the other being semantic memory. Episodic memory deals with the memory of autobiographical past events from one’s life, which can be consciously recalled, and which often include things like the person’s perceptual experiences, their emotions, locations, etc. Episodic memory, along with present beliefs, influences our concept of self. (See also: autonoetic consciousness.)
Epistemology (eh-pis-tem-all-a-gee; aka theory of knowledge) — the study of knowledge, more specifically, what constitutes knowledge and how do we gain it. Put more simply, what can we claim to know and how can we claim to know it. The term shortened term epistemic (eh-pis-temic or eh-pis-teamic) denotes something related to epistemology, such as, epistemic principles refers to principles used in general in epistemology or a particular epistemology.
Epoché — a term from ancient Greek philosophy. To the Academic or Pyrrhonian skeptics it meant suspension of judgement or refraining from assent to a belief / thought / emotion. To the Stoics it generally meant not assenting to a passion (destructive emotion). In phenomenology it refers to “bracketing”, or the researcher / therapist setting aside their own assumptions, beliefs, values, etc., in order to not taint their ability to interpret and/or report what the subject is subjectively experiencing.
Equifinality — a phenomenon in multidimensional processes or systems where various factors can all cause or contribute to the same result/condition.
Explicit memory — aka declarative memory, is long-term factual memory that can be consciously recalled. Explicit memory is divided into two categories: semantic (words, concepts, numbers) memory and episodic (events/experiences) memory.
Folk wisdom — cliche cultural expressions of purported wisdom. In particular situations an instance of folk wisdom might be logical, and indeed wise, but in other situations that same expression of folk wisdom will be fallacious. The problem with folk wisdom is it is often touted as applying in all or in nearly all situations, rather than as pithy statements that apply to some situations. There are many examples, within any culture, of folk wisdom, and many of these examples contradict one another if they are taken as general rules (which they commonly are). For example, a person might say “absence makes the heart grow fonder” to a person wondering if they should leave their girlfriend to go on a summer vacation; in this case the person’s absence might make their girlfriend long for them even more, or it may make them lose interest or develop romantic interest in another person. Here we can see that the folk wisdom proverb “absence makes the heart grow fonder” is not a general rule.
GABA — gamma-aminobutyric acid or γ-Aminobutyric acid is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that causes relaxation or sedation. Tranquilizing (anxiety and psychosis reducing), sedating (physiologically and mentally slowing), and hypnotic (sleep inducing) drugs often work by activating GABA receptors or enhancing the action of GABA.
Ghrelin — an enteroendocrine hormone that increases gastric acid secretion, gastrointestinal motility, and is partly responsible for causing the sensation of hunger.
Glutamate — an excitatory neurotransmitter that causes stimulation.
Hormone — hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by glands in the endocrine system and transported through the bloodstream to target cells and tissues. They play important roles in regulating various physiological processes in the body, including metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and stress response.
There are many different types of hormones, each with their own unique functions and effects on the body. Some examples of hormones include:
- Insulin: Produced by the pancreas, insulin is responsible for regulating blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake and storage of glucose in cells.
- Estrogen and progesterone: These female sex hormones are produced by the ovaries and play important roles in regulating the menstrual cycle, promoting reproductive health, and maintaining bone density.
- Testosterone: This male sex hormone is produced by the testes and plays important roles in regulating sexual development and function, as well as muscle mass and bone density.
- Cortisol: Produced by the adrenal glands, cortisol is involved in the body’s response to stress and helps to regulate blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and immune function.
- Thyroid hormones: Produced by the thyroid gland, thyroid hormones are involved in regulating metabolism, growth and development, and body temperature.
These are just some examples of the many different hormones that are produced by the endocrine system. Each hormone plays a unique role in maintaining homeostasis in the body and regulating various physiological processes.
Internal validity — the degree to which a scientific study eliminates biases or methodological errors, so that its conclusions are warranted. In other words, how well the study determines the cause of the behavior, cognition, emotion, effect, etc. The hidden camera in the bathroom example (see external validity) would have low internal validity because we wouldn’t know what caused the individuals to wash their hands or not wash their hands. For example, we might ask if it was because there were other people in the restroom with them, or was it because they have a lot of knowledge about germs and disease transmission? These things (people in the room, knowledge of disease transmission) could be independent variables that we introduce and test in an experiment. Experiments with, for example, control groups, high sample randomization, standardized protocols/instructions, double blindness, would have a high degree of internal validity. But, when we put individuals in a study, and they know they are in a study, are external validity will go down. So, in many cases, external validity decreases as internal validity increases, and vice versa.
Jamais vu — the feeling of being unfamiliar with a person, situation or environment that should be familiar to the perceiver. Possible causes: psychedelic or psychoactive drug, epileptic seizures, etc.
MAOI — MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors are a class of drugs that inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase enzymes that serve to break down monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin, melatonin, and norepinephrine. MAOIs can cause serotonin syndrome when mixed with SSRIs or serotonin precursors which also boost the amount of serotonin in the synapse.
Mean (statistics; symbolized by an x with a bar over it) — the average of a data set. The mean is highly affected by extreme or outlier values—in these instances the median (see median [statistics]) is usually a better representation of reality (e.g., income in the US).
Median (statistics) — the middle value when all values are arranged in order of least to greatest. If the middle falls between two values (in the case of an even number of values) take an average of the two sandwiching values. The median is usually a better representation of reality when extreme or outlier values are present in a data set (see mean [statistics]).
Mediating factors — factors or variables that serve as links in causal chain. For example, in the causal chain of “food consumption –> insulin secretion –> glucose uptake into cells” insulin secretion is a mediating factor that allows food consumption to have an effect on the body’s cells.
Metaphysics — the branch of philosophy which investigates the fundamental nature of reality. Metaphysicians (philosophers who focus on metaphysics) endeavor to discover what exists and explain what those things are like. Aristotle referred to metaphysics as “first philosophy,” indicating that it dealt with this fundamentality – the general examination of what is and how it is. Metaphysics further divides into two sub-branches: ontology, which focuses on what exists and how to categorize those things; and metaphysical cosmology – the study of the fundamental nature of the universe.
Memory — memory is broken up into different categories of cognitive processing. Sensory memory is a very brief memory of a sensory experience we have just had; declarative memory relates to factual information and knowledge and is separated into two distinctions: episodic memory (memory of the events we have experienced) and semantic memory (memory of facts and concepts). Non-declarative memory (aka procedural memory) is our knowledge of how to do things like ride a bike or have a conversation; we know how to do these things, but we may not be able to explain these things well—you can’t simply tell someone how to ride a bike because there it is too complicated to explain. Long-term memory refers to enduring memories that have been archived for repeated retrieval through our lifespan. Working memory refers to our store of long-term memory + our sensory memory—that is, we make sense of our sensory perceptions and memories through matching these experiences and information to those in our long term memory. Salient or important experiences in our sensory or working memory are archived into long-term memory.
Mode (statistics) — the value that occurs most frequently in a statistical analysis (if there is a tie a sample can have two mode values). If all values do not occur more than once it is said there is no mode.
Moderating factors — factors or variables that serve to moderate (increase or decrease) the effects of other factors / variables.
Mood — a general emotional state that persists over a significant period of time (generally more than several minutes). Compare with emotion and affect.
Multicausality — a term that describes a situation where a particular outcome or phenomenon can be caused by a number of independent causes or factors. For example, if X can be caused by Y independently, or Z independently, then it is a multicausal phenomenon. Compare with multifactorial and multifinality.
Multidimensional is a term that refers to complex processes or systems that involve multiple causal factors and dimensions (e.g., biological, psychological, social) in a complex relationship.
Multifactorial refers to a situation where a particular outcome or phenomenon is influenced by multiple factors that are interrelated and dependent on each other. In other words, the factors that contribute to the occurrence of the outcome or phenomenon are not independent, but rather they interact with each other and collectively contribute to the outcome. For example, if X is caused by Y and Z together, then it is a multifactorial phenomenon. Compare with multicausal.
Multifinality — a term used to describe a phenomenon found in multidimensional processes or systems where the presence of a causal factor can result in multiple different outcomes. For example, one gene variant (allele) in humans might increase the risk for (contribute to) several different psychopathologies. For example, there is a variant of the MAP1A gene that has been linked to attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorders.
Negative Feedback – is a relationship of processes in a system which tends toward equilibrium. Put simply, some input stimulus causes output to be reduce or regulated. A good example is glucose regulation in animals: eating food causes glucose levels to rise in the blood; in response, beta cells in the pancreas secrete insulin, which turns glucose into glycogen that is stored in the liver for future use (this also prevents hyperglycemia which is harmful to cells, especially neurons). In the case where there is a lack of food intake, glucose levels dip, causing alpha cells in the pancreas to secrete glucagon, which turns glycogen into glucose.
Neocortex — definition coming soon.
Neuroleptic (etymology: neuro = neuron; leptic = to take hold of) — another name for antipsychotics, aka major tranquilizers.
Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers that are released by neurons (nerve cells) to transmit signals to other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. They are essential for the functioning of the nervous system, which is responsible for controlling and coordinating many physiological processes in the body.
There are several classes of neurotransmitters, which can be classified based on their chemical structure or their functional properties. Some of the main classes of neurotransmitters include:
- Amino acids: This class of neurotransmitters includes glutamate, which is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
- Monoamines: This class of neurotransmitters includes dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), serotonin, histamine, and melatonin. Monoamines are derived from amino acids and play important roles in the regulation of various physiological and psychological processes, including mood, appetite, sleep, and movement.
- Catecholamines are a class of neurotransmitters that are derived from the amino acids phenylalanine or tyrosine. Examples of catecholamines include dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline). Catecholamines are involved in a wide range of physiological and psychological processes, including mood regulation, attention and focus, motivation, movement, and the “fight, flight, or freeze” response to stress. The release and reuptake of catecholamines is tightly regulated by various enzymes and transporters in the brain and peripheral nervous system.
- Acetylcholine: This neurotransmitter is synthesized from the amino acid choline and plays important roles in regulating muscle contraction, cognitive function, and memory.
- Neuropeptides: This class of neurotransmitters includes endorphins, which are involved in pain relief and reward processing, and oxytocin, which is involved in social bonding and trust.
- Purines: This class of neurotransmitters includes adenosine and ATP, which are involved in regulating energy metabolism and signaling between neurons.
There are also several other types of neurotransmitters, including gases (e.g. nitric oxide), lipids (e.g. endocannabinoids), and trace amines (e.g. tyramine). Each class of neurotransmitter plays a unique role in the functioning of the nervous system.
Norepinephrine — a catecholamine neurotransmitter that causes arousal in the brain, and has complex functions elsewhere in the body.
Normative – a normative statement is a statement of what a person ought to do. In ethical philosophy a normative account or a normative theory is a theory of how one ought to live or how they ought to act. Sometimes normative theories are called first-order theories. Contrast this with meta-ethical views (aka second-order views).
Null hypothesis — often abbreviated as H0 — the hypothesis that there is no statistical significance in a finding; that the proposed intervention has no desired effects; that the status quo maintains (see and compare with alternative hypothesis).
Parasympathetic nervous system — ***coming soon.
Population validity — one aspect of external validity. Population validity refers to how well a scientific study represents a population. Population validity is achieved through randomization in randomized controlled trials (RCTs).
Positive feedback — a relationship of processes in a system that leads to increasing effects, and instability and/or change. Positive feedback is often referred to as a loop or a cycle, where one iteration of the cycle (iteration A), leads to another iteration (iteration B), which in turn increases the effects of iteration A, which increases the effects of iteration B, and so on until a change or instability occurs (C). These cycles are often referred to as vicious if the change is bad or negative, and virtuous if the change is good or positive. An illustrative example of a positive feedback loop is coagulation (blood clotting) in animals: tissue damage results in a chemical response that attracts platelets to the site of injury; this activation of platelets causes them to release more chemicals that further activate platelets. The psychological condition known as cardiac neurosis is another illustrative example. The sufferer fears heart problems causing them to fixate on their heart beat, pulse, or sensations around the chest or arms; this fixation leads to anxiety when the sufferer begins to feel they have detected an abnormality; in turn, anxiety causes the heart to beat faster and blood pressure to rise, giving further concern to the sufferer and causing high levels of stress that may become problematic.
Precommitment, also known as a Ulysses pact, is a technique used in psychotherapy to help people overcome impulsive or compulsive behaviors that they have difficulty controlling. The term comes from the Greek myth of Ulysses, who bound himself to the mast of his ship to avoid being tempted by the Sirens’ song.
In psychotherapy, a precommitment or Ulysses pact involves making a commitment in advance to avoid engaging in a specific behavior or to engage in a specific behavior, even when one is experiencing strong impulses or urges. The idea is to make it more difficult to engage in the unwanted behavior by removing or reducing access to the triggering stimuli or by creating barriers to acting on the impulse.
For example, a person who struggles with overeating might create a precommitment by removing all unhealthy snacks from their home and making a plan to only eat at certain times during the day. They might also enlist the help of a friend or family member to hold them accountable to their plan. These are known as commitment devices.
Another example might be a person struggling with addiction who creates a precommitment by avoiding places or situations where they are likely to be exposed to their addictive substance and making a plan to engage in healthy coping strategies when they feel the urge to use.
Rumination — being fixated on a thought, a memory, a feeling, and going over and over it in your mind. Negative rumination often involves feeling beating ourselves up, or feeling guilty or shameful over past actions.
Sample — in a psychological study, a sample refers to a group of participants who are selected from a larger population to participate in the study. The goal of selecting a sample is to obtain a representative group of people who are similar to the larger population on important characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, and other relevant factors.
The size and composition of the sample can have important implications for the generalizability of the findings to the larger population. A larger sample size generally increases the confidence that the findings are representative of the larger population. Additionally, it is important to use appropriate sampling methods to avoid bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population of interest.
Psychologists use a variety of sampling methods, including random sampling, stratified sampling, and convenience sampling, depending on the research question and available resources.
Sampling bias — a situation where the participants selected for a study are not representative of the population from which they were drawn. Sampling bias occurs when there are flaws in the sampling procedure or when certain individuals are systematically excluded or underrepresented in the sample. Sampling bias can lead to inaccurate or misleading conclusions about the population of interest, and can affect the external validity of the study.
Examples of sampling biases:
- Selection bias: Occurs when participants are not selected randomly or are self-selected, leading to an unrepresentative sample.
- Volunteer bias: Occurs when individuals who volunteer to participate in a study differ systematically from those who do not volunteer, leading to an unrepresentative sample.
- Non-response bias: Occurs when participants refuse to participate or are lost to follow-up, leading to an unrepresentative sample.
Semantic memory — is one of two types of explicit memory, the other being episodic memory. Semantic memory is our long-term memory that deals with general facts about the world. Semantic memory can be consciously recalled and includes concepts, facts, ideas, etc.
Sensitivity and Specificity (in tests/research) — Sensitivity = how likely a test is going to be triggered as positive when it should be (true positive cases). For example, in the example of a medical test, a highly sensitive test will correctly identify almost all sick people—that is, true positives—and very rarely will it identify sick people as healthy (false negatives).
The good thing about high sensitivity tests is that if it is negative it is almost always actually negative (true negative); the bad thing about high sensitivity tests is that many of them have low specificity, and this means there will be a lot of false positives as well. (Note: Sensitivity and specificity are usually in an inverse relationship, but not always; very good tests will have high sensitivity and high specificity.) Metal detector gates are often set to high sensitivity in an airport; these metal detectors are mainly there to detect large metal objects like guns, knives, and bombs, but even small metal objects like belt buckles may set them off. High sensitivity = lots of false positives, and very few false negatives (in the case of a medical test a false negative means sick people scored as healthy; in the case of a metal detector a false negative means someone getting through with a large metal object, like a gun). In fact, if a medical test has high sensitivity and is negative you can pretty much rule out that disease. In the airport security example, where high sensitivity is the norm, this would mean that belts and buttons and all kinds of little metal things will set off the metal detector (false positives), but there will be very few people with guns getting through (false negatives). If someone gets through a high sensitivity metal detector you can almost guarantee they don’t have a large metal object, like a gun, on them. Short version: high sensitivity = very few false negatives, lots of false positives.
Serotonin — or 5-HT, a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan / 5-HTP that is primarily found in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. It plays a variety of important roles in the human body, including: regulating mood (it may promote calmness and feelings of well-being), regulating appetite and digestion, regulating sleep, regulating pain, and hemostasis.
These are just some of the many roles that serotonin plays in the human body. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been linked to a variety of conditions, including depression, anxiety, and gastrointestinal disorders.
Specificity = how likely a test is to correctly identify negative cases (true negatives). For example, a high specificity medical test for a disease will identify almost all healthy people as healthy (true negatives), and very rarely identify healthy people as sick (false positives). The bad thing about high specificity tests is that many of them have low sensitivity, so there will be a lot of false negatives. Short version: high specificity = very few false positives, lots of false negatives.
Standard deviation — ***coming soon
Stoicism — a philosophy that originated in ancient Greece and emphasizes personal ethics and the importance of virtue, rational self-control, and resilience in the face of adversity. The Stoics believed that individuals should focus on what they can control, rather than worrying about what is beyond their control. The philosophy teaches that individuals should strive for inner peace and tranquility by cultivating virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and self-discipline.
SSRI — SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are a class of medications often used for the treatment of depression and anxiety. SSRIs work by preventing the reuptake (or reabsorption) of serotonin into the neuron, thereby allowing it to work in the space between the synapses (the synaptic cleft) longer, and in theory enhancing the connections and action of the neurons.
SNRI — SNRIs or serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors are a newer class of drugs often used for the treatment of depression of depression and anxiety. SNRIs work similarly to SSRIs, but also prevent the reuptake of norepinephrine.
Tetrapharmakos — or the “four-part remedy,” was a set of four maxims developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus as a guide to living a happy life.
The four-part remedy is as follows:
- Don’t fear god: Epicurus believed that the gods, if they existed, were not interested in human affairs and did not interfere with our lives. Therefore, there was no reason to fear them or worry about pleasing them.
- Don’t worry about death: Epicurus argued that death is nothing to us since when we die, we no longer exist. Therefore, there is no reason to fear death or worry about what happens after we die.
- What is good is easy to get: Epicurus believed that we should focus on simple pleasures and avoid excess, as it is easier to achieve and maintain a state of contentment this way.
- What is bad is easy to endure: Similarly, Epicurus argued that we should not fear pain or hardship, as they are usually temporary and can be endured with the right mindset.
The tetrapharmakos was intended to help people live a peaceful and contented life, free from fear and anxiety. By following these four principles, Epicurus believed that we could achieve a state of tranquility and happiness.
Type I error — False positive, or ruling out the null hypothesis in error. “When the boy cried wolf, the village committed Type I and Type II errors, in that order’ remains the best hypothesis testing mnemonic.” — Patrick Collision
Type II error — False negative, or ruling out the alternative hypothesis in error. “When the boy cried wolf, the village committed Type I and Type II errors, in that order’ remains the best hypothesis testing mnemonic.” — Patrick Collision
Z-score — ***coming soon