This article will attempt to: 1) explain what, in general, is meant by the term mindfulness; 2) explain how mindfulness can benefit a person; 3) summarize research on the common elements found in different conceptions of mindfulness; 4) contrast the Buddhist conception of mindfulness with the Stoic conception; and 5) offer a practical or demystified synthesis of these conceptions which anyone can use in their life.
Mindfulness is a type of awareness and a way of thinking. Mindfulness practices are common to many ancient philosophies or religions (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Stoicism), and it has been incorporated into various types of modern psychotherapy.
Mindfulness can help people in many ways. For example, mindfulness teaches us to be in the present moment, rather than being stuck in regret about the past or worry about the future; mindfulness also helps us to develop better emotional and behavioral regulation by teaching us how to not react to our thoughts, emotions, and desires in automatic (unthinking or reflexive) ways.
Mindfulness interventions are supported by a growing body of evidence, including several recent meta-analyses (for example see Goldberg et al., 2017; Galante et al., 2018). Mindfulness is frequently used in psychotherapy to achieve various goals, such as reducing negative rumination, stress, anxiety, and depression, as well as decreasing problematic behaviors. Some examples of psychotherapies that incorporate mindfulness:
- Third-wave Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
- Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)
- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
- Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
Despite its widespread use in psychotherapy, the concept of mindfulness can be difficult to explain in an understandable or practically useful way. Often we are presented with definitions that are wrapped up in mysticism or that are so vague that they are essentially meaningless.
With the aim of discovering common elements in the various conceptions of mindfulness, researchers Nilsson and Kazemi (2016) conducted a literature review of peer-reviewed research articles on psychotherapeutic mindfulness, in addition to prominent Buddhist texts on mindfulness. These researchers discovered five “core elements” — attention / awareness, present-centeredness, cultivation, external events, and ethical mindedness.
The Five Elements of Mindfulness Outlined:
- Awareness / attention — awareness refers to the state of being aware of what one has chosen to be aware of (this might be a singular thing, like our breath, or more generally, what is occurring inside and outside one’s body); attention is the ability to focus on these things without being distracted by other thoughts, events, or sensations. Decentered awareness is paramount; to have a decentered awareness means that we try to view our emotions and thoughts from a non-judgmental (or objective) outside perspective where we are no longer at the center of these phenomena (see Bernstein et al., 2015). I prefer the term objective detachment to describe this type of awareness. One way the Stoics practiced objective detachment was by using straight-forward, value-neutral language (see: Aurelius, Meditations, book 6, paragraph 13).
(Note: To better understand decentered awareness, consider our typical experience as like being inside a bubble of thoughts and emotions; while inside this bubble we identify with, automatically react to, and intensely feel our thoughts and emotions. In contrast, in decentered awareness we are outside of the bubble, like a dispassionate scientific observer, taking note of these things without being greatly affected by them or engaging with them. Having a decentered awareness helps us to break out of emotional thinking which causes us to react in automatic ways [see emotional thinking on our common thinking errors page]. In decentered awareness we do not suppress our emotions—we still consider our emotions, but we temper them with reason and rationally analyze them to consider the best course of action; likewise, we still pay attention to our thoughts, but we do not automatically believe everything we think—rather we scrutinize our thoughts and thought processes to determine if they are rational / helpful.) - Present-centeredness — the ability to be in the moment; to not be distracted or distressed by regret about the past or worries about the future.
- Cultivation—cultivation involves two distinct but related concepts: a) remembering that the mind creates suffering through attachment (Siegel, Germer, & Olenzki, 2009) — in my view, which is in line with the Stoic position — I would say that we should remember that it is our interpretation of events or states of affairs, not the events or states of affairs themselves, that causes most of our psychological suffering (see Epictetus, Enchiridion, section 5); b) cultivating self-compassion / self-acceptance, developing compassion for others, empathy, and acceptance of others, striving for social good (Hick, 2009), including all sentient beings (Nilsson, 2016).
- External events — this aspect of mindfulness is concerned with the physical events occurring outside our bodies. This would include our environment, our social world, and our biological circumstances—all of which are impermanent and dynamic phenomena, similar to internal (mental) phenomena. The term “caring non-attachment” has been used to describe the Buddhist view of external phenomenon; this term describes the general Buddhist view of not being attached or clinging to any particular set of external phenomena, since these are always changing. In my view, this could also be interpreted through a Stoic lens, specifically the Stoic concept of the dichotomy of control. The dichotomy of control holds that we cannot exert much control over anything outside ourselves (e.g., what others think / do, the natural world, events in the world, etc.), however, we do have a considerable degree of control over how we form beliefs, how we think, and how we prepare or respond. Therefore, we should focus on what we can control, and accept external events as they are, since it does us no good to worry over that which we cannot control.
- Ethical-mindedness, to be aware of the ethical implications of our actions and to deliberate on right action. In Buddhism this would involve a consideration of the five precepts. In Stoicism one would look to the general Stoic ethical teachings and the 4 virtues (Ussher, 2014). In psychotherapy we often discuss whether one’s actions or possible actions are in line with their values or their long-term goals.
In the modern, popular conception of mindfulness, and the sort which is frequently employed in psychotherapy, there is a concept of being aware without judgment. Non-judgment in psychotherapeutic mindfulness means not automatically judging events (internal events — e.g., thoughts / emotions; external events — e.g., things that happen in the world, things other people do / say) or states of affairs.
The reason we don’t want to snap to automatic judgment is because our perceptions are quite frequently not an accurate representation of reality; another reason is because we cannot know, for certain, how an event will affect us in the long run (see Taoist Farmer Parable).
Of course, we want to ethically evaluate our possible actions to decide which action to take, and we want to ethically evaluate our past actions to decide if we need to make changes in our behavior, but we want to do this in a rational, deliberate way, not automatically, under the influence of emotional thinking. Importantly, we must not get stuck in the past when we consider past actions (see REBT Guilt / Shame Resolution Flow Chart). Mindfulness focuses on the present because we cannot change the past — it is outside of our control — we can, however, learn from it and change. To ruminate on the past or get stuck in the paralyzing global self-condemnation of guilt / shame (which helps no one) would be contrary to the whole point of mindfulness.
Related to the idea of non-judgment is the psychological concept of “auto-pilot”, introduced by scientist Jon Kabat-Zinn (2005). In our default mode of consciousness we often react automatically — that is, without rational consideration — to thoughts, emotions, and events. Someone cuts us off in traffic and we blare our horn or make a rude gesture; we think about something we did in the past that we regret and we spiral into depression. When we are mindful we stop automatically reacting with judgment or with action. For example, instead of jumping to the judgement that the person who cut us off is an inconsiderate jerk, we realize that we don’t always know if the person was being aggressive—maybe they didn’t see us, or maybe they are in the middle of a crisis or an emergency situation; similarly, rather than flip the person off or honk at them, we delay our reaction and consider whether this is ethical / rational. Even if the person in this situation was being aggressive (acting like a jerk), if we are mindful, we realize it will do no good to escalate the situation.
With these core elements in mind we can summarize mindfulness as follows:
The term mindfulness describes a type of decentered, rational awareness of the present moment, where one refrains from reacting automatically. To stop reacting automatically, the practitioner of mindfulness delays their reaction whenever possible in order to consider the most rational course of action—while keeping in mind what is in one’s control and what is not, one’s cultivated wisdom, and one’s ethical values and long-term goals.
Admittedly, this is a lot to remember and integrate, which reinforces the importance of cultivation. We should ponder on mindfulness often, and use every stressful or distressing situation as an opportunity to practice it. This is essentially the role that meditation plays in many people’s lives — they practice observing the present moment, including what is occurring in the mind and how it has a tendency to automatically react, they cultivate insights, and they learn to overcome their mind’s automatic nature.
For an abbreviated / easy to remember version of the above, remember the mnemonic GAP:
Ground yourself in awareness of the present moment. When we are mindfully grounded in the present we are aware of what is going on in our minds and bodies, but in a more detached and objective way (a less emotional or judgmental way), so that we are not getting pulled into automatic reactions. When we are grounded in the present we are also not getting stuck in ruminating on the past or worrying about the future. Combining grounding exercises (see the stress management and grounding handout) with stress management techniques, such as self-massage, will facilitate relaxation by engaging the parasympathetic nervous system (the part of the nervous system that is involved in relaxation and digestion). Entering into a more relaxed state will get you out of the “fight, flight, or freeze” automatic thinking that occurs when our sympathetic nervous system is activated, and allow the parts of your brain that handle higher cognitive functions to engage. By grounding you will become more calm and focused—which will allow you to move onto the next steps of mindfulness practice.
Avoid automatic judgments and reactions. Simply observe, in a dispassionate and detached manner, what you are thinking and feeling without acting on it. Remember that thoughts and feelings are just impressions, and they are not necessarily accurate or true.
Postpone reacting, whenever possible, so that you can consider your Values / Long-term goals and think Rationally (VaLoR). When thinking rationally, first consider what is in your control and what is not (focus only on what you can control and accept or let go of that which is not), then question the soundness of your perceptions or thoughts (remember “don’t believe everything you think”) and look for any irrational / self-defeating beliefs or thinking errors. If any irrational or self-defeating beliefs are found, refute and replace them with rational / helpful beliefs.
NOTES:
The word GAP was chosen because the goal of mindfulness is to decrease or delay reactivity — to create a gap between stimulus and reaction where we can formulate a well-thought-out response. Similarly, I have heard some therapists compare mindfulness to the 7 second gap or delay in live TV broadcasts, so the broadcaster can take out anything that is inappropriate for broadcast).
Another way to remember to use mindfulness in our lives is to think of our most problematic states of consciousness (e.g., anger, jealousy, fear, anxiety, depression) as lucid dreamers think of dream signs. When we experience these dream signs we need to remind ourselves to “wake up!” and pull ourselves out of automatically reacting.
“[…]I would define mental health as the capacity to be aware of the gap between stimulus and response, together with the capacity to use this gap constructively.” – Rollo May, Freedom and Responsibility Re-Examined, 1963
References:
Bernstein, A., Hadash, Y., Lichtash, Y., Tanay, G., Shepherd, K., & Fresco, D. M. (2015). Decentering and related constructs. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 599–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615594577
Galante, J., Dufour, G., Vainre, M., Wagner, A. P., Stochl, J., Benton, A., & Jones, P. B. (2018). A mindfulness-based intervention to increase resilience to stress in university students (the Mindful Student Study): a pragmatic randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Public Health, 3(2), e72-e81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30026-4
Goldberg, S. B., Tucker, R. P., Greene, P. A., Davidson, R. J., & Kearney, D. J. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.011
Hadot, P. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life: Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. Wiley-Blackwell.
Hick, S. F. (2009). Mindfulness and social work: Paying attention to ourselves, our clients, and society. In S. F. Hick (Ed.), Mindfulness and social work (pp. 1–30). Chicago, IL: Lyceum Books.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Wherever you go there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Nilsson, H. (2016). Socioexistential mindfulness: Bringing empathy and compassion into health care practice. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 3, 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000092
Nilsson, H., & Kazemi, A. (2016). Reconciling and thematizing definitions of mindfulness: The big five of mindfulness. Review of General Psychology, 20(2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000074
Siegel, R. D., Germer, K. C., & Olenzki, A. (2009). Mindfulness: What is it? Where did it come from? In F. Didonna (Ed.), Clinical handbook of mindfulness (pp. 17–35). New York, NY: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978–0–387–09593–6_2
Ussher, P. (2014). Was there a ‘Stoic mindfulness’? In P. Ussher (Ed.), Stoicism today: Selected writings vol. 1 (pp. 89–101). CreateSpace/Stoicism Today.